Introduction

Teacher expertise is crucial for the sustainable development of teachers who encounter diverse and unpredictable circumstances in instruction (Lin et al., 2005). Studies worldwide demonstrate that teachers’ collaborative activities improve school functions and instructional capabilities, ultimately enhancing students’ success (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin,2011; McLaughlin & Talbert, 2006; Slater, 2008). Teachers’ professional learning communities have been created to create opportunities for teachers’ collaboration, develop common and shared goals of improving students’ achievements, and increase school effectiveness (Evertson, 2020). However, the transformation in teaching and learning cannot solely rest on teachers since school leadership plays a vital role in ensuring a congenial work environment in which teachers feel supported, trusted, and empowered in fostering students’ autonomy (Patrick, 2022). Datnowand Park (2018) demonstrated the importance of leadership in cultivating a collaborative culture among teachers. A collaborative environment provides a space for working amidst the inevitable challenges that accompany the changing nature of teaching in an age of accountability. Leadership is more democratic than hierarchical when teacher learning becomes collaborative and contextual (Hallinger, 2011; Hallinger & Heck, 2010a, 2010b; Leithwood et al., 2008; Louis et al.,2009).

The professional development of secondary school teachers has long been a significant concern in Bangladesh's education system. There is no existing process of systematic recruitment and training for pre-service teachers in Bangladesh (Cross et al., 2022). However, piloting in-service teachers ‘networking and professional development were initiated through virtual learning environment (VLE), e-learning, web 2.0, and mobile learning, along with traditional modes (Cross et al., 2022). These initiatives were found to contribute effectively to promoting teachers’ quality; however, the lack of teachers’ collaborative work, peer support, and inadequate monitoring and guidance on curricular development posed considerable obstacles (Cross et al., 2022). Thornton (2006) highlighted that teachers' formal and informal collaboration is equally significant for mutual support in the secondary school environment in Bangladesh. She identified secondary school teachers in Bangladesh as being isolated in their teaching, which is often done alone in the classroom, and lacking sufficient peer classroom teaching observations. She noted this practice as ‘autonomous isolation’ (Fullan, 1991) and considered it a potential constraint to secondary school teachers’ professional development. Hence, it is necessary to pay research attention to the existing conditions of teachers' collaboration in secondary schools.

In Bangladesh, recent interventions in providing teacher training at both governmental and non-governmental levels emphasize teachers’ school-based learning, with the goal of promoting teachers’ interactions, both formal and informal, in school settings (S. M. H. Rahman, 2011). The existing situation and the recent development in the secondary education sector necessitate policymakers' attention to teachers' professional development. Teachers are pivotal in ensuring quality education for students, and research literature suggests that self-awareness and learning contribute significantly to enhancing teachers’ professional expertise (Avalos, 2011; S. M. H. Rahman, 2011; Westbrook et al., 2013).On the other hand, teachers themselves are not solely capable of implementing tasks essential for their collaboration at schools, as organizational decisions in Bangladesh mostly depend on school leaders. School leadership in Bangladesh is shaped by the positional and historical heritage of the colonial system, which has fostered a top-down approach to authoritarian management (M. S. Rahman, 2020). When leaders can establish the school culture and provide teachers with autonomy and support to improve their pedagogical skills, adult professionalism and student learning are benefited. “The central task for leadership is to help improve employee performance” (Leithwoodet al., 2008, p. 29) and that “the primary aim is building not only the knowledge and skills that teachers and other staff need” but also “the dispositions (commitment, capacity and resilience) to persist in applying the knowledge and skills” (Leithwoodet al., 2008, p. 30). Transformational leadership is imperative for fostering teachers' collaboration, as transformational school leaders identify goals and share a vision, build relationships and inspire communication, foster collaboration and teamwork, and provide organizational and instructional support for teachers’ professional development (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015; Leithwood, 2021; Marks &Printy, 2003). Due to the absence of a shared mission among leaders and ineffective support for teachers’ collaboration to achieve the common objective of improving students’ learning, schools in Bangladesh face difficulties in overcoming the cultural inertia of individualism (Evertson, 2020). Thus, fostering teachers’ collaborative practices might reasonably be enhanced by providing school leaders with the exercise of transformational leadership in schools in Bangladesh. Research attention on school leaders’ influences on teachers’ collaboration and collaborative professional learning appears scarce worldwide, nevertheless in Bangladesh. Moreover, exploring leaders' approaches to teachers’ collaborative practices for professional learning appears scant from a transformational leadership perspective. Thus, it becomes significant to explore the existing collaborative practices of teachers in the school environment and how school leaders approach teacher collaboration through the lens of transformational leadership. The study results might help design and implement school-based teacher development models for teachers’ professional development as well as school leaders’ skill development. In addition to this, for education policymakers, this study may have implications for incorporating a more collaborative orientation into in-service or pre-service training for school teachers and school leadership, emphasizing attitudinal reform and skill development.

Considering the significance and the scarcity of studies on teachers’ collaboration and the impact of school leadership on ensuring an imperative school environment for teachers’ professional collaboration in the Bangladesh context, this study aims to explore:

1.What activities do teachers involve themselves in their professional work environment that inform teachers’ collaborative practices in Bangladesh?

2.How do school leaders approach teachers’ collaborative practices in schools?

Literature Review

Numerous previous studies have identified the concept of teachers’ professional collaboration as a strategy for promoting teachers' professional agency and development. This is an avenue where individual teachers can engage with colleagues, work collectively to improve their professional skills, produce better practices, and enhance students’ learning achievement (Ikpuri& Peter, 2024). Again, Leadership is perceived as an organizational construct rather than a single individual, since leadership roles extend across leaders, followers, and the environment within an organization (Evertson, 2020). The concept of interaction between school leaders and teachers has become a research interest worldwide. However, the number of empirical studies addressing the relationship between school leaders’ support and teachers' collaboration for professional learning, and investigating school leadership approaches from the Transformational leadership framework is scarce.

To explore the effect of transformational leadership on implicit and explicit knowledge sharing through the mediating role of knowledge-centered school culture (KSC), Hoang and Le's (2025) study employed a qualitative approach and revealed the positive influence of transformational leadership traits on teachers’ knowledge sharing, attributed to the positive effect of KSC. Thus, the study suggests fostering transformational leadership traits for collaborative practices among teachers in the higher education context. With similar research aims, a study by Gaspersz(2024) that united transformational leadership theory demonstrated the positive impact of school leaders’ transformational leadership on teachers’ collaborative practices. The study revealed the positive influence of leaders’ transformational leadership and teachers’ collaboration on their ability to implement interdisciplinary learning. On the other hand, in a different context of the African primary school, Luyten and Bazo (2019) used structural equation modelling to investigate and explore the strongly positive but indirect impact of leaders' transformational leadership practices on teachers’ collaboration for professional learning. The study also highlighted the effect of teachers’ learning collaboration on their practice, thus signifying transformational leadership for learning communities in the African context.

Studies on school leaders' approaches to teachers’ collaborative practices for professional development are scarce in the Bangladeshi context. A qualitative study conducted by Thornton (2006) identified constraints in developing a collaborative culture in schools, as well as several issues, including curriculum difficulty, students’ low ability, teachers’ educational backgrounds, and teachers’ motivational factors. The study suggested the potential of informal collaboration for increasing teachers’ motivation, but it needed to build a collaborative working environment and formal programs grounded in classroom observation. The study raised questions about the validity of teacher development programs and emphasized students’ learning as the ultimate goal of teachers’ collaboration. On the other hand, the mixed-methods study by S. M. H. Rahman (2011) aimed to explore primary school teachers’ perceptions and practices of peer support, as well as the underlying reasons for the differences between their perceptions and practices. The study explored teachers' perception of peer support as significant for their professional development and diverse factors that impeded their collaborative engagement.

While considering outside Bangladesh, a study by Ikpuri and Peter (2024) explored how collaborative assistance improved the performance of teachers when they encountered high levels of stress. The working environment that promotes teachers’ collaborative practices includes having appropriate human resources available to support teacher learning, minimize work stress, prevent isolation, promote engagement, and provide a way to collectively address complexities and challenges (Ikpuri& Peter, 2024). Additionally, Hoy and Spero (2005) showed that teachers lacking collaborative relationships with colleagues proved more vulnerable emotionally. Thus, establishing a culture that stimulates and encourages collaborative problem-solving and active help-seeking within professional communities is imperative for teachers' professional development (Ikpuri& Peter, 2024).

A study by Hsieh et al. (2024) investigated the impact of school leadership on teachers’ professional collaboration, in which teacher self-efficacy and innovativeness played mediating roles. The study applied leaders’ instructional leadership and distributed leadership as theoretical frameworks and explored the influences of these two forms of leadership styles on teachers’ collaborative functions. Instructional leadership style was found to have a significant direct impact on teachers’ professional collaboration, while the distributed leadership style was revealed to have an impact on both teachers’ professional collaboration and collective innovativeness. The study results provided significant insights for school leaders and teachers to promote professional collaboration and improve school and student achievement. Similarly, drawing on social interdependence theory and structural equation modeling, a study by Meyer et al. (2020) explored a significant indirect impact of school leadership on teachers' collaboration mediated by teachers’ collective efficacy.

To develop a typology, van Schaik et al. (2020) examined how school leaders foster collaborative teacher learning. The researchers adopted an integrative perspective of distributive and learning-centered leadership practices that are imperative for teachers' collaborative learning. The study found four types of leadership that included a) facilitators of teacher learning, b) integrators of teacher learning, c) managers of teacher learning, and d) managers of daily school practices. The study of distributive and learning-centered leadership practices for teachers’ collaborative learning.

Thus, the research studies explored teachers' collaboration and the influences of school leadership practices on teachers’ collaboration in different contexts. However, research studies in similar areas are scarce in Asia, especially in Bangladesh. The reviewed literature bears theoretical and methodological implications that justify this study attempt. Theoretically, this study will apply the key constructs of transformational leadership (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015;Leithwood, 2021; Marks & Printy, 2003) to identify school leaders' approaches to teachers’ collaboration. Additionally,methodologically, it employed a qualitative approach to gain an in-depth understanding of the participants’ experiences, which are noticeably absent in the existing literature in the Bangladesh context. Thus, this empirical study aims to further the existing literature and address the theoretical and methodological gaps identified in the reviewed literature.

Methodology

Research Design

The research design of this qualitative study started with a comprehensive literature review to understand teachers' collaborative activities and school leaders’ roles and approaches to teachers’ professional collaboration in the school environment. The reviewed literature presents theoretical and methodological implications that contribute to the research design of the present study.

Sample

This study applied a purposeful sampling of 6 participants (Teacher 1, Teacher 2, Teacher 3, Teacher 4, Teacher 5, and Teacher 6) from targeted secondary schools in Bangladesh. In all, 3 participants were selected from the private, 2 participants from the public, and 1 participant from Revenue High School of Dhaka district. Most participants have more than 10 years of work experience. To identify the participants, the researcher went through her professional and personal networks. To maintain gender balance, there were three male and three female teachers. The demographic information of these participants is presented in Table 1. Since this study is qualitative in approach, it focuses on exploring specific themes within specific contexts. The small sample size allowed the researcher to immerse themselves in these contexts and understand the nuances of individual experiences, thereby developing a deeper understanding of the context of teachers’ collaboration. All the participants were interviewed based on their availability and convenience. Each of them took part in the in-depth interview for 30-40 minutes.

Table 1. Profiles of the Participants

Data Collection

An in-depth interview was used as a research instrument to collect data. The interview protocol consisted of fourteen semi-structured questions. Each participant was interviewed once, and the interview duration ranged from 30 to 40 minutes. I aimed to elicit their spontaneous responses to the questions to gather rich data from them. I tried to establish a good rapport with the participants to ensure a comfortable environment. The participants answered in Bengali, which the researcher translated into English in the transcript. Interviews were conducted through telephone conversation in an informal conversational style rather than in a scripted style. According to Mishler (1991), an interview is not only a means of social interaction between a researcher and participants but also a vehicle for the communication of meaning during the conversations, which establishes “a mutual understanding of interview questions and responses” (p.19). The interviews were considerably inspiring, and the participants provided me with very rich data to address my research questions. The researcher remained aware of her own biases and applied an objective overview in selecting research questions, providing a reliable interpretation of data, and drawing a reliable conclusion

Credibility

Credibility is measured by the level of participants’ concordance with the result of the research (Trochim & Donnelly, 2006). The member checking strategy was applied to ensure the credibility of the findings. The study findings were shared with all the participants to ensure their accuracy and resonance with their experiences.

Analysis of Data

The thematic framework by Braun and Clarke (2006) was used to analyze the collected data. “Thematic analysis highlights the experiences, meaning, and realities of research participants” and also attempts to “theorize the significance of the patterns and their broader meanings and implications” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 84). The data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step framework: i) familiarising with data, ii) generating initial codes, iii) searching for themes, iv) reviewing themes, v) defining and naming themes vi) producing the report.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

This study will apply the idea of teacher collaboration (da Ponte & Quaresma, 2019; de Jong et al., 2022; Martin, 2014) as the conceptual framework for the first research question and the theoretical framework of transformational leadership (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015; Leithwood, 2021; Marks & Printy, 2003) for the second research question.

Teachers’ Collaboration

Teacher collaboration stands for the process in which teachers work together to share ideas, strategies, and resources for the improvement of teaching practice and promotion of students' learning outcomes. Researchers have identified multidimensional components to illustrate the nature of collaboration. However, Slater (2008) summed up the key aspects of collaboration from a plethora of definitions and the aspects included: common goals, joint work, and interdependence (Cook & Friend, 1991; Welch & Sheridan, 1995), b) parity (Cook & Friend, 1991; Welch & Sheridan, 1995) c) voluntary participation (Cook & Friend, 1991; Hargreaves, 1994). Vangrieken et al. (2015) identified several key aspects of teachers' collaboration: a) Professional learning community (PLC), b) Community of Practice (CoP), c) Team, and d) Group

Regarding the investigation of secondary school teachers’ collaboration, this study will be guided by the concept of da Ponte and Quaresma (2019), de Jong et al. (2022), and Martin (2014) of school-based collaboration of teachers in the forms of:

Storytelling and scanning for ideas

To provide informational and social support, teachers exchange their experiences among colleagues in a staff common room or hallway. In this setting, teachers try to find precise concepts, solutions to problems encountered through exchanging experiences casually (Gaspersz, 2024).

Aid and assistance

Teachers’ interactions for mutual help or aid are available. Teachers share ideas reciprocally and provide advice addressing diverse challenges that evolve in teaching situations (Gaspersz, 2024).

Sharing methods and materials

This involves a moderate level of interdependence among teachers (de Jong et al., 2022). Regarding instructions and curriculum, teachers share and exchange various teaching materials, methods, ideas, and resources with one another.

Joint work

It fosters interdependence among teachers at a high level, which promotes critical inquiry, analysis, and continuous improvement.

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership plays a significant role in enhancing school development through its explicit and implicit influences on subordinates. Transformational school leaders engage staff in common goal setting, minimize teacher isolation, apply bureaucratic mechanisms to support cultural changes, share leadership through power delegation, and navigate the norms and beliefs of the school (Demir, 2008). Leaders with transformational traits motivate employee teachers to exceed their expectations through idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, inspiration, and individualized consideration (Avolio & Bass, 2001). School leaders consistently strive towards three fundamental goals: fostering teacher development, providing support and assistance for staff members’ development, and promoting a collaborative school culture that contributes to collectively solving organizational problems (Leithwood, 2021). Regarding mutual collective interaction, transformational leaders inspire and motivate others to do more than the planned and move beyond expectations (Gaspersz, 2024). A transformational leader provides support and stimulation to facilitate positive changes, as followers admire, trust, and demonstrate respect and loyalty towards the leader (Purwanto et al., 2021). Thus, transformational leadership builds collectivistic beliefs regarding their abilities.

Theoretically, this study will apply the key constructs of transformational leadership (Leithwood, 2021; Marks and Printy, 2003; Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015) to identify school leaders’ approach to teachers’ collaboration: a) Sharingvision, identifying goals, and setting direction, b) Relationship building and inspirational communication, c) Fostering collaboration and teamwork, d) Providing organizational support and improving school culture, e) Improving instructional support, and f) Ensuring accountability.

Findings

Following the process of codification in thematic analysis, the interview data were scrutinized to identify the participants' ideas and experiences and to answer each of the research questions, which were condensed into several initial codes. These initial codes were later grouped into subthemes, determined in light of the conceptual framework of teacher collaboration and transformational leadership, to extract the main themes. These main themes were illustrated using data excerpts supported by the relevant data sources.

Research Question 1:What activities do teachers engage in their professional work environment that inform teachers’ collaborative practices in Bangladesh?

The first question sheds light on understanding the collaborative activities among school teachers that will inform the existing collaborative practices of secondary school teachers in Bangladesh. The participants reflected on their real-life experiences, and the major themes, as shown in Table 2, were elicited through the application of thematic analysis.

Research findings indicate that the participants have had limited experiences with collaborative activities within their school environment.

Table 2. Teachers’ Collaborative Practices in the School Environment

Limited Storytelling and Scanning for Ideas

Collaborative activities involve teachers’ sharing knowledge, ideas, and professional experiences. Data collected from the participants indicates their lack of involvement in collaborative practices within the school context, and they expressed their perceptions and the essentiality of collaborative practices for their professional growth. Their collaboration spans both professional and personal issues. For instance, Teacher 1, as shown in Table 1said,

You know, the actual scenario of our schools is that from morning to afternoon, we take classes ceaselessly, without rest. Our free time is very limited. When major issues appear regarding students, class management, or pedagogical strategies, in our staff room, we share ideas to seek help from each other, but this interaction could be more. (Teacher 1)

Most of the participants were surprised to have heard of PLC (Professional Learning Community) in their respective schools. Teacher 4, as shown in Table 1, expressed her dissatisfaction regarding teacher collaboration. She stated, “We have a regional forum named ‘SELF (Secondary English Teachers Forum) and BELTA (Bangladesh English Language Teachers Association) where we meet monthly, but I wish we could have a group in my school to have regular discussions “(Teacher 4).

On the contrary, Teacher 6, as shown in Table 1, seemed to be more enthusiastic about collaboration. She said, “We do it willingly and informally as casual gossiping. I want more time sitting in the hallway to share more. During school days, we don’t get enough time, but sometimes plan to come on holidays, but it's scarcely implemented” (Teacher 6).

Inadequate Interactions for Mutual Help or Aid

Adequate mutual interactions and sharing of teaching aids among teachers in a school setting contribute to fostering teachers’ collaboration. Analysed data demonstrated significant attitudinal issues among teachers regarding their involvement with colleagues for formal collaboration. Many of them prefer to work individually or in isolation. They come to school, take classes and other assignments, and leave the campus. Teacher 4 was sharing her experiences that reflected her preference,

“School doesn’t give me much free time to have long discussions with other colleagues, I am unable to sit because my family demands my time then” (Teacher 4).

In Bangladesh, the secondary school curriculum undergoes frequent changes, which require teachers' training and other support for a proper understanding and implementation of the new curriculum. Teachers also feel the necessity more than usual to talk with colleagues to get aid or help to enact new pedagogy or to teach new content in the classroom. Teacher 2, as shown in Table 1, said, “When a new curriculum is published, we collaborate mutually. If we fail to receive training, we take ideas from those who received that training” (Teacher 2).

Limited Sharing of Material and Methods

Sharing teaching materials and pedagogical methods appeared to be in practice among a few teachers, limited to examination time or the arrival of a new curriculum. Throughout the year, most of them use their personal teaching materials and individual style of teaching.

As teacher 5stated in Table 1, “we are unable to sit regularly in the staff room during exam time, we discuss to formulate the question paper and determine the specific syllabus for the exam” (teacher 5).

Sharing class material and methods is not common among teachers. Teacher 3, as shown in Table 1, said,

We have our textbooks or borrow from the school library. We hardly share material for setting questions and taking the class. If any teacher prepares special notes on content, we ask for suggestions on how to find resources, but we don’t share the same notes because it is their effort (Teacher 3).

In addition to that, Teacher 2 said, “We don’t have the trend of peer class observation, and most of us are reluctant to be observed by others during the class. Our head teacher never encouraged. We miss better examples of classroom teaching from our senior colleagues” (Teacher 2).

Limited Joint Work for Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning takes place when teachers work jointly or collectively. Teachers in schools were found to work in groups rarely for professional learning in a planned or structured way. However, regarding extra-curricular activities or other relevant program organizations, all of them were found to work in collaboration rather than individually. This collaborative activity is done with collective help, trust, and support. Teachers themselves are unwilling to work in teams or groups: “You know, this is only when we work as an exam committee or cultural or sports committee, we work in groups to make specific things happen” (Teacher 3). Similarly, Teacher 2 reported, “No in-house training, no workshop, no seminar ever took place in my school. We don’t know them. Sometimes, we attend external training from the Government, but not all teachers avail themselves” (Teacher 2).

Teachers were found to be concerned about working collaboratively, as they had attended different training sessions where they had learned to work on projects or make things in groups. However, in their day-to-day working environment, they hardly exercise this collaborative practice to build a PLC orCoP.Teacher 1 was found to express her disappointment over inadequate opportunities of working and learning in group for professional development, “I want to do it but as a junior I can’t insist my other colleagues of my subject since they don’t want, probably they feel quite efficient, or you may say, their ego, I don’t know” (Teacher 1).

Teacher 6 also said, “We want it, but this scope for collaboration has not been designed institutionally. If it had been, we would have been encouraged to follow regularly. What we do is not planned or structured, but casual and ineffective” (Teacher 6).

Thus, the study results demonstrate a lack of collaboration among teachers in secondary schools. Additionally, the participants’ experiences project several underlying problems that obstruct teachers’ collaboration at a satisfactory level, including: a) Workload of teachers, b) Inadequate number of teachers, b) Infrastructural problem, c) Problem with leadership approach, d) Teachers’ attitudinal problems, and e) Unplanned and unstructured collaboration.

Research Question 2:How do school leaders approach teachers’ collaborative practices in schools?

Following the participants’ experiences as stated in the interviews, it was clear that most of them had had considerably negative experiences regarding the instructional and individual support they received from their school leaders. A good number of issues were revealed, as shown in Table 3, concerning head teachers’ approach to teachers’ collaboration in the school environment.

Table 3. School Leaders’ Approach to Teachers’ Collaboration

Inadequate Support Institutionally and Individually

Adequate institutional and individual support is considered imperative to fostering teachers’ collaborative practices in the school environment. Among the participants, only teacher 3 and 5 expressed their contentment regarding the support and help received from their school principals. Other teachers provided a dismal picture regarding their experiences with school leaders. For example, Teacher 1 said, My Headmaster is my boss, not my colleague. He lacks a proper understanding of the necessity of teachers' collaboration. He neither encourages nor builds a suitable organizational culture for our collective activities” (Teacher 1).

A similar tone was echoed in the statements of Teacher 6, Teacher 4, and Teacher 2 while reporting about their school leaders’ authoritarian attitudes. Teacher 4 said, “She never visits our class nor provides feedback individually, but takes information about teachers from students. Shefavoursthe chosen for her utility and doesn’t have any major concern for organizational betterment” (Teacher 4).

Identical data could be found from Teacher 6, when she said, “She never encourages teachers who perform better, let alone gives rewards. This practice is never encouraging for teachers’ motivation to work more committedly for students or the school” (Teacher 6).

However, the study found that school leaders who efficiently provide help and support for teachers’ collaboration are motivated by their perception of its essentiality for school reform and student achievement. Teacher 3 said, “We feel privileged since our headteacher observes our classes, especially when any new teacher joins. She provides feedback on the pedagogical strategy to improve. She encourages good teachers to share ideas with novice teachers” (Teacher 3).

Thus, most of the participants’ experiences reflect the challenges they encounter institutionally as well as from the school leadership's approach towards collaborative practices.

Absence of Shared Goal with Teachers

One of the vital traits of leadership is its ability to share a vision and goal, which creates a sense of urgency and motivation among followers. However, most participants reported the scant presence of sharing principles among their school leaders. According to the participants’ (Teacher 1, 2, 4, and 6) statements, the school leaders’ authoritarian and demotivating attitude was reflected. Teacher 6 said, “It is true that my headmistress calls staff meetings regularly, but this is just to stand on formality. Whatever the decision in the staff meeting, finally, ‘Boss is right’ which demotivates general teachers to express opinions in the meeting” (Teacher 6).

An exception to this, two participants reported complying with these characteristics when Teacher 3 said, “Our Headmistress very often calls meetings where she shares her ideas and invites opinions. She is cooperative with teachers and addresses individual problems in school. We are happy with her” (Teacher 3). Similarly, Teacher 5 said:

My Headteacher has formed several clubs, Science Club, Math Club, Language Club, etc, where teachers and students work collaboratively. He sits with these groups at regular intervals and monitors them. He recommends both local and central teacher training. He instructed the trained teachers to disseminate their knowledge to other, less experienced teachers. (Teacher 5)

Lack of Democratic Practice and Fostering Collaboration

A sense of democracy and setting followers free to express opinions for the common goal's implementation are transformative leadership characteristics. Teacher 5 and 3 provide the data that resonates with this leadership trait of their school leaders. However, the reports of all the other participants about their school leaders do not align with the concept of transformational leadership.

It was obvious when the researcher provided an example of her school principals’ practices of sharing vision or goals of achieving, Teacher 2 from a rural revenue high school, said,

We are unfamiliar with such a system because our headmaster never sets an agenda for meetings. Only the selected teachers are informed, but the rest of us are not informed about the decision; only we know when decisions are enacted. (Teacher 2)

The autocratic administrative practice of school leaders was identified when Teacher 4 was reporting about the exercise of power by her headteacher:

My headmistress has been politically appointed, so she always maintains relationships with local and central political leaders rather than maintaining good communication with her fellow teachers. My school is private, and the governing body controls many aspects. There is hardly any general collaboration among us regarding important decisions in school. (Teacher 4)

Absence of Accountability

It is considered that accountable school leaders can potentially make their fellow teachers accountable and transparent in their dealings. A positive and fair school environment is encouraging for teachers to collaborate and commit to the betterment of their schools. Most of the participants’ cultures were not reported to be conducive to building a teacher’s professional community or group. Their school heads were unable to establish a school culture that was essential for building interpersonal relationships among teachers. Teacher 1, 2, 4, and 6 provided identical data regarding their school transparency and accountability. For example, Teacher 2 and Teacher 1 said:

He adopts a divisive policy rather than uniting us to work collaboratively at school. He manages the school by applying a rural policy of dividing teachers into several groups, which creates an obstacle to collaborative discussion within groups or teams. The total environment is negative for me. (Teacher 2)

This is, you can say, the ‘Check and Balance’ policy of my headmaster. He communicates and favors those whom he needs to preserve his chair. Even financially, they are benefited. As a new teacher, I want to collaborate, but there is no scope for collaboration on the school campus. (Teacher 1)

However, Teacher 3 provided a positive leadership practice in his school when he reported on school leaders’ accountability, “My principal is committed to making this school a role model. She is equal to all teachers, and everyone feels welcome to give opinions. She encourages collaborative work among teachers to develop skills for students' betterment” (Teacher 3).

Discussions

This study aimed to explore existing collaborative practices in secondary schools, as well as school leaders' approaches to teachers’ collaboration within the school environment. The investigation of secondary school teachers’ collaborations was guided by the concept of de Jong et al. (2022), da Ponte and Quaresma (2019), and Martin (2014) on teachers’ school-based collaboration in the forms of: Storytelling and scanning for ideas; Aid and assistance; Sharing methods and materials; Joint work. The study findings revealed a scarcity of professional collaboration among teachers in their respective working environments.

Limitations in Teachers' Collaborative Practices in the School Environment

The analyzed data revealed a dismal picture of secondary school teachers’ collaboration in their respective school environments. Most participants expressed disappointment regarding their inability to collaborate through PLC, CoP, teamwork, or group work. Teacher collaboration and support to improve teaching and learning in the classroom are notable by their absence (Thornton, 2006, p.181) in secondary schools across the country. All participants expressed their desire for collaboration, and having a positive school culture ensured by their respective school leaders. The participants reported the inadequacy of collaborative functions, such as storytelling or scanning for ideas, in their common rooms or hallways at schools, as well as inadequate mutual interactions, limited sharing of teaching and learning materials or methods, and insufficient joint or team work for professional learning purposes. Participants were informed of their working together and the limited sharing of ideas and materials during the examination period.

This study found that some participants never took the opportunity to observe other teachers’ classes, nor had their own classes been observed by others. The study by Thornton (2006) described secondary school teachers in Bangladesh as isolated, in the sense that they teach alone in their classrooms and lack sufficient time to observe peer classroom teaching. She noted this practice as ‘autonomous isolation’ (Fullan, 1991). Additionally, Cross et al. (2022) identified several obstacles to teachers’ professional development in Bangladesh, which included a lack of teacher collaboration and a lack of peer support.

The absence of the opportunity for collaboration with colleagues might result in teacher isolation and burnout(Gaikwad & Brantley, 1992), and it can adversely impact students’ academic achievement.

Again, the issues that the participants shared in the interviews included their heavy workload in a single day. They are assigned to take many classes that obstruct their involvement in any collaborative work in their everyday schedule. Similarly, the study by Liebech-Lien (2021) explored that teachers' workload posed considerable impediments to their collaborative practices. Moreover, since teachers share a common staff room, they have some scope to exchange their experiences and ideas; however, it was found to be unlikely that they would discuss their professional learning because it was not customary (Thornton, 2006).

Along with the teachers’ considerable workload, the headteachers were also reported to be busy with their administrative and managerial dealings, which debarred them from contributing meaningfully to promoting teachers’ quality development. Moreover, headteachers in Bangladesh are not provided with sufficient training for organizational management, including planning for staff’s professional capacity development. Similarly, school principals in Germany were reported to have insufficient time to devote to teachers’ professional development (Brauckmann& Schwarz, 2015). The study also focused on principals’ need to acquire specific skills in this regard (Meyer et al., 2020).

However, the study suggests that teacher collaboration can potentially be improved by providing teachers with an enhanced professional learning environment at schools, which requires school leaders to adopt a positive attitude and implement meaningful initiatives. Positive emotions reinforce teachers' collective capacities (Demir, 2008). Most of the participants in this study expressed their willingness to be involved in collaborative works but are retarded by professional and organizational constraints. According to Thornton (2006), the factors influencing teachers' collaboration in Bangladesh included teacher-teacher dialogue, teachers’ room for communication, and teachers’ perceptions of collaboration. These study findings align with Thornton's (2006) research on teachers’ willingness to engage in collaborative practices and the identical influencing factors that have the potential to facilitate teachers’ collaboration. However, this study differs from Thornton's (2006) study in terms of its results, as Thornton’s study revealed teachers’ informal collaboration for students’ improvement, which was found to be scarce in this study. Additionally, Vangrieken et al. (2017) stated about the collaborative attitude of teachers regarding teachers’ autonomy and collaboration. Teacher collaboration is influenced by several personal issues of an individual teacher, including previous experiences, emotional factors, and professional background(Thornton, 2006).

Lack of School Leaders’ Support for Teachers’ Collaboration

The study revealed a notable absence of school leaders’ practices of transformational leadership attributes that are considered imperative to foster teachers’ collaboration. According to Demir (2008), the relationship existing between transformational leadership and teachers' collaborative school culture is strong, directly or indirectly. Transformational leaders act as coaches or mentors to develop their followers in a culture of reciprocal collaboration, enabling them to achieve a higher level of potential (Demir, 2008). The participants’ interviews reflected their respective school leaders’ activities, which were insignificant in terms of their instructional and intellectual support for their employees’ professional development. Transformational leaders provide personal attention to fellow teachers, tailoring it to their individual needs for growth and achievement (Avolio & Bass, 2001). The study results suggest that school leaders are not concerned about improving the quality of their staff or enhancing their organizational collaborative culture, and thus, their leadership approach does not comply with the essential attributes of transformational leadership. School leaders consistently put effort into fostering teacher development, ensuring support and promoting help and support for teachers’ development, and enhancing a collaborative school culture, thereby contributing collectively to solving organizational problems (Leithwood, 2021). However,Teachers 1, 2, 4, and 6, as shown in Table 1 in this study, reported having no feedback on their pedagogical style from their school leaders, as they seldom visit their classes and provide instructions for improvement. Novice teachers in this study reported a need to receive feedback and instruction from school leaders and senior colleagues to improve their teaching quality. Similarly, according to Klassen and Chiu (2010) and Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998), novice teachers would benefit from the support of peers and school principals, as they often encounter challenging situations and are at risk of experiencing failure. Sharing vision, identifying goals, and setting direction are essential constructs of transformational leadership (Leithwood, 2021). To enhance teachers’ professional learning, school leaders are expected to articulate and communicate a clear vision of teachers’ professional learning, supervise, and ensure reward (van Schaik et al., 2020). Conversely, most school leaders in this study have been reported to pay the least attention to promoting teachers’ collaboration for their professional growth. Lack of organizational and instructional support demotivates the participants’ enthusiasm for collaborative practices. This scenario corresponds with several study results in the German context (Pietsch et al., 2016, 2018). Moreover, the participants' statements reflected that teachers' involvement in collaborative work would be active and spontaneous if they were allowed in a structured way, as designed institutionally. Most of the teacher participants expressed regret about the absence of such organizational planning or design of collaborative activities.From a traditional perspective, teachers' collaboration has been informal, taking the form of social interaction rather than professional engagement in a structured manner (M. S. Rahman, 2020). The unstructured and informal nature of teacher collaboration posed limitations to the positive impact on teachers' professional development (M. S. Rahman, 2020).

However, Teacher 3 and 5 stated positively about their school leaders’ contributions and support for collaborative works. The study revealed the school leaders' activities that informed transformational leadership, as they demonstrated democratic practices, accountability, and a culture of collaboration with a shared vision and goal. Four areas have been identified by Bredeson (2000) in which school leaders can noticeably influence teachers’ professional learning: creating an environment for staff learning, their direct involvement in learning activities, and the assessment of professional learning of teachers. This study's results differ from Bredeson (2000) in that an explicit absence of school leaders’ effort was noted in ensuring a positive environment for staff learning, as well as their involvement in facilitating and assessing teachers’ professional learning. School leaders can support their teachers’ professional skill development by providing opportunities for improving instructional quality (Bandura, 1997). They can set some common goals or ensure that teachers make regular class observations, mutually providing and receiving effective feedback to improve their performance. They can collectively identify learning needs, highlight potential, and take systematic measures in their schools (Brinson & Steiner, 2007).

Transformational school leaders share leadership through power delegation, bringing about reforms in the norms and culture of the school (Demir, 2008). However, school leaders’ approach, as stated in this study, does not comply with the Transformational leadership traits. Conversely, the participants noted the presence of authoritarian attitudes among school leaders and a lack of collaborative school culture in their respective workplaces. One participant also spoke about the controlling authority of the School Managing Committee or Governing Body over decision-making and implementation. The study results are similar to those of Thornton (2006), as it explored how the scope of teachers' collaboration increased when decision-making power was curtailed. Her study in the Bangladesh context explored the reality of teachers’ as well as headteachers’ power being restricted and controlled by the school management committee. Bangladesh is still struggling with an orthodoxy of leadership suggesting a hierarchical relationship between followers and leaders (Thornton, 2006).

A transformational leader fosters a positive school environment characterized by mutual trust, admiration, and respect among school members (Purwanto et al., 2021), which significantly enhances collaboration among teachers. Most participants reported on their respective school leaders’ practices of bias,favouritism, and lack of accountability, particularly in financial dealings. School leaders’demoralisingpractices were also revealed in the study, as most participants stated that they adopted a ‘divide and conquer’ policy among teachers, discriminating against them in terms offavourand financial privilege. Salahuddin (2011) asserted that in Bangladesh, school leaders encounter considerable challenges in establishing a collaborative culture due to their lack of confidence. School leaders prefer to consult only their chosen teachers with whom they feel comfortable, and thus, their accountability remains questioned. In formal meetings, the issues of discussion usually included managerial and administrative matters rather than professional learning and teachers' capacity development (Thornton, 2006).

Thus, the school leaders’ approach, as reported by the participants, did not consistently project transformational leadership attributes. Most of the school leaders proved to be indifferent and unconcerned about teacher collaboration. However, the study recommends that school leaders foster transformational leadership attributes since leadership style and cultural and political influences act as barriers to teachers’ interactions for professional learning. Therefore, a significant shift in leadership style is necessary to create a supportive working environment that encourages teachers’ collaboration and peer support (Cross et al., 2022). Additionally, investment in teacher training and professional capacity development is essential for addressing the issues associated with teachers' collaborative practices in Bangladesh.

Conclusion

Though not the only panacea, professional collaboration appears to be one of the most empirically supported and practical strategies for teacher development and school improvement (Hargreaves & O’Connor, 2017). This qualitative study stands out for its exploration of the existing culture of teacher collaboration among secondary school teachers, along with their respective school leaders' approaches to fostering collaboration in Bangladesh, framed within the context of transformational leadership theory. The study also highlights various challenges related to teacher collaboration that require attention. Nevertheless, the study highlighted the constructive impact of transformational leadership attributes on teachers’ collaboration and shed light on school leaders’ preparedness to support teachers’ collaboration for enhancing teachers’ professional development, students’ learning, and school improvement. Given the scarcity of research in the South Asian context, this study makes a meaningful contribution to understanding how leadership style shapes teacher collaboration. Thus, this empirical study attempted to further the existing literature on teachers’ collaboration and address the existing research gap by exploring the realities in the Bangladesh context. To conclude, not only the school head, but also teachers are the leaders of their respective classroom platforms. They need to create a shared vision and goal among students, motivate and intellectually stimulate them towards implementing the goal, which indeed contributes to real-world preparation and school development in a broader perspective.

Recommendations

The study results contribute to understanding the practical and theoretical implications for teachers' collaboration and school leadership approaches towards teachers’ collaborative practices in the school environment. Study findings imply school leaders’ considerable ignorance and indifference towards teachers’ collaboration and thereby bring suggestions for leaders to focus on their instructional support and collaborative practices of leadership, and contribute to infusing teachers' collaboration within the school’s daily schedule. Additionally, the study offers suggestions for promoting teachers' self-awareness about their professional collaboration. For education policymakers, this study recommends incorporating a more collaborative orientation into in-service or pre-service training for school teachers and school leadership, with a focus on attitudinal reform. Recommendations include designing professional development programs, promoting open collaboration and feedback, and ensuring equitable access to all institutional resources, infrastructurally and intellectually.

In addition, this study provides recommendations for policy-level reforms to ensure leadership training that focuses on developing transformational leadership constructs in school leaders. For school leaders, this study offers suggestions for implementing change in top-down authoritarian practices and attitudes towards the concept of teacher collaboration.

Additionally, further and wider-scale research is recommended, involving school leaders and students as participants, to explore the practical challenges to teachers' collaborative practices within the school environment. This research will inform educational leaders, researchers, and policymakers in the national education arena in Bangladesh.

Limitations

This study has limitations, including its small sample size and the limited setting. The small sample size might affect the transferability of study results and limit the applicability of the study findings to other contexts. For this reason, the study provides recommendations for future research with a larger sample size from a more extensive research setting.

Ethics Statements

All the participants were informed of the objectives of the study ahead of obtaining their consent. They confirmed that their identity would remain anonymous and that their responses would be kept completely confidential. The researcher used pseudonyms for all the participants. All the participants signed informed consent documents.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares no potential conflict of interest concerning this research.

Funding

The author received no financial support for this research, authorship, or article publication.

Generative AI Statement

The author has not used generative AI or AI-supported technologies.